Introduction ROBERT IRWIN; Part I. Religion and Law: 1. Islam JONATHAN BERKEY; 2. Sufism ALEXANDER KNYSH; 3. Varieties of Islam FARHAD DAFTARY; 4. Islamic law WAEL B. HALLAQ; 5. Conversion and the Ahl al-Dhimma David J. Wasserstein; 6. Muslims and the natural world Richard Bulliet; Part II. Societies, Politics and Economics: 7. Caliphs, kings and regimes Said Arjomand; 8. The city and the nomad Hugh Kennedy; 9. Rural life and economy Andrew M. Watson; 10. Demography and migration Suraiya N. Faroqhi; 11. Mechanisms of commerce Warren C. Schultz; 12. Women, gender and sexuality Manuela Marin; Part III. Arts, Literature and Learning: 13. Education Francis Robinson; 14. Philosophy Richard C. Taylor; 15. Sciences in Islamic societies Sonja Brentjes with Robert G. Morrison; 16. Occult sciences and medicine S. Nomanul Haq; 17. Literary and oral cultures Jonathan Bloom; 18a. Arabic literature Julia Bray; 18b. Persian literature Dick Davis; 18c. Turkish literature Cigdem Balim; 18d. Urdu literature Shamsur Rahman Faruqi; 19. History writing Li Guo; 20. Biographical literature Michael Cooperson; 21. Art and architecture Marcus Milwright; 22. Music Amnon Shiloah; 23. Cookery David Waines; 24. Muslim accounts of the Dar al-Harb Michael Bonner and Gottfried Hagen.