Eline M. J. Schotsmans is a post-doctoral researcher in forensic archaeology and taphonomy at the Laboratory of Anthropology of Past and Present Populations (PACEA) at the University of Bordeaux, France, and an honorary fellow at the University of Bradford, UK. She has worked on various forensic cases and conducts research in taphonomy that lies at the interface between archaeo-anthropology and forensic sciences.

Nicholas Márquez-Grant is a Lecturer in Forensic Anthropology and Course Director MSc in Forensic Archaeology and Anthropology at Cranfield University, UK. He is also a Research Associate at the University of Oxford. He has analysed human remains from a number of countries and chronological periods and currently undertakes forensic casework in the UK.

Shari Forbes is a Professor and ARC Future Fellow in the Centre for Forensic Science at the University of Technology Sydney. She is also the Director of the Australian Facility for Taphonomic Experimental Research (AFTER), the first facility in Australia that allows scientists to study the decomposition of human cadavers. She is regularly consulted on forensic casework and assists police to search for and locate human remains using police dogs and geophysical equipment.

List of Contributors xix Notes on Contributors xxvii Foreword xxix Acknowledgements xxxi Introduction 1
Eline M.J. Schotsmans, Nicholas Márquez-Grant and Shari L. Forbes I.1 Efremov: from Taphonomy to Science Fiction 1 I.2 The Meaning of Taphonomy 2 I.3 The Rationale Behind this Volume 3 I.4 Challenges in Forensic Taphonomy 4 I.5 Organisation of the Volume 6 References 7 Part I General Post-Mortem Processes: Degradation of Soft Tissue, Bone and Associated Materials 9 1 Gross Post-Mortem Changes in the Human Body 11
Stuart J. Hamilton and Michael A. Green 1.1 Introduction 11 1.2 The Immediate Post-Mortem Period 11 1.3 Subsequent Weeks 16 1.4 Other Post-Mortem Modifications 16 1.5 Skeletonisation 22 1.6 Conclusion and Future Research 22 References 23 Cited court cases 25 2 Microscopic Post-Mortem Changes: the Chemistry of Decomposition 26
Shari L. Forbes, Katelynn A. Perrault and Jenna L. Comstock 2.1 Introduction 26 2.2 Autolysis 27 2.3 Putrefaction 27 2.4 Factors Affecting Autolysis and Putrefaction 31 2.5 Impact of the Decomposition Process on the Surrounding Environment 32 2.6 Conclusion 35 References 35 3 Profiling Volatile Organic Compounds of Decomposition 39
Pierre-Hugues Stefanuto, Elien Rosier, Jan Tytgat, Jean-François Focant and Eva Cuypers 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Matrices and Sampling Methods 40 3.3 Results and Discussion 46 3.4 Conclusion and Future Research 49 References 50 4 Blood Degradation and Bloodstain Age Estimation 53
Gerda J. Edelman and Maurice C.G. Aalders 4.1 Introduction: Forensic relevance of bloodstains 53 4.2 Blood Degradation 54 4.3 Mechanical and Morphological Changes 55 4.4 Optical Methods 55 4.5 Practical Implementation 59 4.6 Crime Scene Challenges of Bloodstain Age Estimation 60 4.7 Conclusion 62 References 62 5 DNA Degradation: Current Knowledge and Progress in DNA Analysis 65
Claudio Ottoni, Bram Bekaert and Ronny Decorte 5.1 Introduction 65 5.2 Mechanisms of DNA Degradation 65 5.3 Preservation of DNA: Recommendations Concerning Sampling and Storage 68 5.4 Methodologies to Analyse Degraded DNA 70 5.5 Future Prospects 74 5.6 Conclusion 75 References 75 6 Taphonomic Alterations to Hair and Nail 81
Andrew S. Wilson 6.1 Introduction 81 6.2 Structure of Hair and Nail 82 6.3 Changes to Hair and Nail 83 6.4 Processing and Storage of Hair 87 6.5 Conclusion 87 Acknowledgements 88 References 88 7 Taphonomy of Teeth 92
Christopher W. Schmidt, Robin Quataert, Fatma Zalzala and Ruggero D'Anastasio 7.1 Introduction 92 7.2 Mechanical Damage: Forensic Case Study 93 7.3 Effects of Thermal Damage 94 7.4 Thermal Damage: Archaeological Case Study 95 7.5 Caveats 97 7.6 Conclusion 98 References 98 8 The Taphonomy of Natural Mummies 101
Dario Piombino-Mascali, Heather Gill-Frerking and Ronald G. Beckett 8.1 Introduction 101 8.2 Post-Mortem Decay 102 8.3 Natural or Spontaneous Mummification 102 8.4 Soft Tissue Changes 103 8.5 Environment, Culture or Both? 104 8.6 Dry Environments 104 8.7 Bog Environments 109 8.8 Cold Environments 110 8.9 Anaerobic Environments 112 8.10 Differential Decomposition 113 8.11 Post-Depositional Factors and Taphonomic Impact 114 8.12 Conclusion 116 References 116 9 Degradation of Clothing in Depositional Environments 120
Barbara H. Stuart and Maiken Ueland 9.1 Introduction 120 9.2 The Structures and Properties of Clothing Materials 120 9.3 Decomposition Mechanisms of Clothing Materials in Depositional Environments 124 9.4 The Influence of Clothing on the Decomposition Processes 127 9.5 Forensic and Archaeological Studies of Clothing Degradation 128 9.6 Protocols for Forensic and Archaeological Clothing Collection and Analysis 130 9.7 Conclusion and Future Research 131 References 131 10 Post-Mortem Interval Estimation: an Overview of Techniques 134
Tal Simmons 10.1 Introduction 134 10.2 Why Estimating the PMI is Important 134 10.3 Scientific Method versus Anecdote in PMI Estimation 135 10.4 Methods for Estimating PMI 137 10.5 Case Example 139 10.6 Conclusion and Future Research 140 References 141 Part II The Depositional Environment 143 11 Relationships between Human Remains, Graves and the Depositional Environment 145
Emily N. Junkins and David O. Carter 11.1 Introduction 145 11.2 The Taphonomy of Buried Human Remains 145 11.3 Factors that Influence Decomposition: Environmental and Intrinsic Variables 146 11.4 Decomposition Processes: Autolysis, Putrefaction and Decay 149 11.5 The Forensic Application of Taphonomy 150 11.6 Conclusion 151 References 152 12 Bacterial Symbionts and Taphonomic Agents of Humans 155
Franklin E. Damann 12.1 Introduction 155 12.2 Bacterial Growth and Metabolism 156 12.3 Limiting Factors of Bacterial Growth and Function 156 12.4 Bacteria as Symbiotic Organisms 158 12.5 Bacteria as Taphonomic Agents 159 12.6 Putrefaction 159 12.7 Microbiology in Forensic Medicine 161 12.8 Conclusion 163 References 164 13 Forensic Entomology and Funerary Archaeoentomology 167
Stefano Vanin and Jean-Bernard Huchet 13.1 Introduction 167 13.2 Insects: Useful Information for Forensic Scientists and Archaeologists 168 13.3 Forensic Entomology and the Application of Insect Knowledge in Forensic Contexts 175 13.4 Insects Recovered from Graves or Associated with Human Remains in Archaeological Contexts 176 13.5 Body Alteration at the Crime Scene as a Result of Insect Activity 179 13.6 Bone Modifications due to Insect Activity 181 13.7 Conclusion 181 Acknowledgements 182 References 182 14 Forensic Botany and Stomach Contents Analysis: Established Practice and Innovation 187
Jennifer Miller 14.1 Introduction 187 14.2 Forensic Applications of Botany 187 14.3 Conclusion 197 References 198 15 The Effects of Weathering on Bone Preservation 201
Soren Blau 15.1 Introduction 201 15.2 A Brief History of Weathering Studies 201 15.3 Variables that Influence Weathering 202 15.4 The Value of Bone Weathering Analyses in Forensic Investigations 204 15.5 Conclusion 208 Acknowledgements 208 References 208 16 The Effects of Terrestrial Mammalian Scavenging and Avian Scavenging on the Body 212
Alexandria Young 16.1 Introduction 212 16.2 Terrestrial Mammalian Scavengers 213 16.3 Avian Scavengers 225 16.4 Applications to Crime Scene Investigation 226 16.5 Conclusion and Future Research 227 References 228 17 Decomposition in Aquatic Environments 235
Barbara H. Stuart and Maiken Ueland 17.1 Introduction 235 17.2 Decomposition Processes in Aquatic Environments 236 17.3 Post-Mortem Submersion Interval 239 17.4 Factors Influencing Aquatic Decomposition Processes 240 17.5 Case Reports and Studies 244 17.6 Recovery Protocols 246 17.7 Conclusion and Future Research 247 References 247 18 Post-Mortem Differential Preservation and its Utility in Interpreting Forensic and Archaeological Mass Burials 251
Caroline Barker, Esma Alicehajic and Javier Naranjo Santana 18.1 Introduction 251 18.2 Assessment of Taphonomic Change in Forensic and Archaeological Contexts 251 18.3 The Study of Taphonomy in Forensic and Archaeological Contexts 253 18.4 Taphonomic Assessment in Mass Burial Deposits 256 18.5 Taphonomic Processes and Differential Preservation in Mass Burials: Current Research and Application 258 18.6 Case Study 1: Differential Preservation of Human Remains and Artefacts in Archaeological Mass Graves of the Same PMI and its Utility to Establish Differences in Burial Environments over Time 262 18.7 Case Study 2: Differential Preservation of Human Remains in Forensic Mass Graves and its Use as an Evidentiary Tool 264 18.8 Conclusion and Future Research 266 Acknowledgements 267 References 267 19 Reconstructing the Original Arrangement, Organisation and Architecture of Burials in Archaeology 277
Dominique Castex and Frédérique Blaizot 19.1 Introduction 277 19.2 The Reconstruction of Perishable Funerary Architecture and its Arrangement 278 19.3 Analysis of Several Individuals in the Same Pit 284 19.4 Conclusion 294 Acknowledgements 294 References 295 Part III Anti-, Peri- and Post-Mortem Modifications to the Body 297 20 Forensic Toxicology of Decomposed Human Remains 299
Richard Lloyd and Julie Evans 20.1 Introduction 299 20.2 Toxicological Matrices 301 20.3 Case Study 307 20.4 Conclusion and Future Research 311 References 311 21 Thermal Alteration to the Body 318
Tim J.U. Thompson, David Gonçalves, Kirsty Squires and Priscilla Ulguim 21.1 Introduction 318 21.2 Soft Tissue Changes 318 21.3 Hard Tissue Changes 319 21.4 Conclusion and Future Research 328 References 329 22 Concealing the Crime: the Effects of Chemicals on Human Tissues 335
Eline M. J. Schotsmans and Wim Van de Voorde 22.1 Introduction 335 22.2 Corrosive Substances: Definitions and History 336 22.3 The Effect of Corrosive Substances on Human Tissues: Case Examples 337 22.4 Research on Corrosive Agents and Decomposition 341 22.5 Case Study: The Pandy Case 343 22.6 Conclusion 347 Acknowledgements 347 References 348 23 Distinguishing between Peri- and Post-Mortem Trauma on Bone 352
Cristina Cattaneo and Annalisa Cappella 23.1 Introduction 352 23.2 Peri- and Post-Mortem Trauma 352 23.3 Alternative Solutions for Distinguishing Between Peri- and Post-Mortem Trauma on Bone 362 23.4 Conclusion 365 References 365 24 Collection Care and Management of Human Remains 369
Rebecca C. Redfern and Jelena J. Bekvalac 24.1 Introduction 369 24.2 Collection Origin and Deposition 369 24.3 Collection Management 371 24.4 Conclusion 378 Acknowledgements 379 References 379 Part IV Case Studies 385 25 The Use of Volatile Fatty Acid Biomarkers to Estimate the Post-Mortem Interval 387
Arpad A. Vass 25.1 Introduction 387 25.2 Methods and Collection 387 25.3 Conclusion 393 References 393 26 A Taphonomic Study Based on Observations of 196 Exhumations and 23 Clandestine Burials 394Roosje de Leeuwe and W.J. Mike Groen 26.1 Introduction 394 26.2 Background on the Exhumations Carried out by the NFI 394 26.3 Variables 395 26.4 Cemetery versus Clandestine Burials 400 26.5 Conclusion 401 References 401 27...