List of Illustrations Preface to the Sixth Edition Acknowledgments A Note About Place Names and Transliteration PART ONE: The Development of Islamic Civilization to the Eighteenth Century 1. The Rise and Expansion of Islam Pre-Islamic Arabia Muhammad and the Foundations of Islam The Arab Conquests and the First Empire The First Civil War and the End of the Rashidun Caliphate From Arab Exclusivism to Islamic Universalism: The Umayyad and Abbasid Empires Conclusion 2. The Development of Islamic Civilization to the Fifteenth Century Patterns of Islamic History The Creation and Uses of Wealth Islamic Rituals and Institutions Two Versions of Leadership: Sunni Caliph and Shi'a Imam The Middle East from the Eleventh to the Fifteenth Centuries: An Overview Conclusion 3. The Ottoman and Safavid Empires: A New Imperial Synthesis The Rise of the Ottoman Empire Ottoman Ruling Institutions and Attitudes The Loss of Ottoman Superiority The Triumph of Shi'ism: The Safavid Empire of Iran, 1501--1736 Conclusion: The Sunni-Shi'a Struggle for Iraq PART TWO: The Beginnings of the Era of Transformation 4. Forging a New Synthesis: The Pattern of Reforms, 1789--1849 Selim III (1789--1806: Between Old and New A Revived Center of Power: The Egypt of Muhammad Ali, 1805--1848 Nationalism and Great Power Intervention: The Greek Revolt, 1821--1829 Sultan Mahmud II (1808--1839): Centralization and Transformation Conclusion 5. The Ottoman Empire and Egypt During the Era of the Tanzimat The Tanzimat: Continued Ottoman Reform Under the Bureaucrats The Arab Provinces of Greater Syria During the Tanzimat Egypt During the Era of Civilian Reform Conclusion: The Dualism of the Nineteenth-Century Reforms 6. Egypt and Iran in the Late Nineteenth Century England on the Nile: The British Occupation of Egypt, 1882--1914 Iran During the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century Conclusion 7. The Response of Islamic Society Religious Assertiveness and Authoritarian Reform: The Era of Abdul Hamid II Islamic Puritan